Stone to Silicon

Math & science · 1824

Carnot's heat engine theory

Carnot shows that an engine's efficiency is limited by its hot and cold temperatures.

Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire founded the theory of heat engines. Its limit still sets the ceiling for every power plant and car engine.

See it in the living treeWikipedia

Arcs above join it to what it stood on, arcs below to what it led to. The bar places this stretch on the tree's whole timeline.

What it built on 2

What it led to 3

Related measurements

The dashed line marks when it first worked.

UK coal production since 1700 Latest: 2.17M tonnes (2019) Source: Our World in Data

Energy used per dollar of GDP Latest: 1.21 kWh per $ (2022) Source: Our World in Data

Fossil fuel consumption Latest: 144k TWh (2025) Source: Our World in Data