Stone to Silicon

Math & science · 1847

Conservation of energy

Joule and Helmholtz show that heat, work and electricity are forms of one conserved quantity.

Joule measured the mechanical equivalent of heat, about 4.2 joules per calorie, and Helmholtz stated the general principle. Energy became the common currency of all physics.

See it in the living treeWikipedia

Arcs above join it to what it stood on, arcs below to what it led to. The bar places this stretch on the tree's whole timeline.

What it built on 2

What it led to 1

Related measurements

The dashed line marks when it first worked.

Energy used per dollar of GDP Latest: 1.21 kWh per $ (2022) Source: Our World in Data

Energy use per person Latest: 20.3k kWh (2025) Source: Our World in Data