Stone to Silicon

Timeline · 69 technologies

Tools & manufacturing

c. 3.3 million years ago to April 2026. Each one is placed by when it first worked.

Open the living tree

  1. c. 3.3 million years agoFirst stone toolsStruck stone flakes give hominins an edge no body could grow.
  2. c. 1.8 million years agoAcheulean hand axeA symmetrical, planned tool shaped on both faces.
  3. c. 502,000 years agoHaftingStone points bound to wooden shafts make the first composite tools.
  4. c. 302,000 years agoLevallois techniquePrepare the core first, then strike off a flake of chosen shape.
  5. c. 172,000 years agoClothingHides worn on the body let humans live in colder lands.
  6. c. 73,000 years agoMicrolithsTiny standardized blades set into handles and shafts.
  7. c. 66,000 years agoBow and arrowStored elastic energy launches a projectile beyond throwing range.
  8. c. 52,000 years agoCordage and ropeTwisted plant fibers become string, the humble backbone of craft.
  9. c. 52,000 years agoEyed needleA bone needle with an eye makes fitted, layered clothing.
  10. c. 48,000 years agoGround stone axesGrinding stone against stone gives a tough, durable edge.
  11. c. 9,500 BCEMonumental stone buildingCarved pillars weighing tons rise before farming takes hold.
  12. c. 8,500 BCEMudbrickMolded, sun-dried bricks let settled farmers build permanent towns.
  13. c. 7,000 BCEWeaving and the loomInterlaced threads turn fiber into cloth.
  14. c. 3,000 BCELeverA rigid bar and a pivot multiply human force.
  15. c. 2,560 BCEGreat Pyramid of Giza2.3 million blocks laid with a precision error under 0.1 percent.
  16. c. 2,500 BCETrue archWedge-shaped bricks carry load in compression across an opening.
  17. c. 1,500 BCEPulleyA grooved wheel redirects a rope; several of them multiply force.
  18. c. 1,300 BCELatheSpin the work, hold the tool still, and get a perfect circle.
  19. c. 515 BCECraneTreadwheels and pulleys lift stone blocks far beyond crew strength.
  20. 312 BCERoman aqueductGravity and arches carry water tens of kilometers to a city.
  21. c. 300 BCEGear trainToothed wheels trade speed for torque and count rotations.
  22. c. 250 BCEScrewA helix turns rotation into steady lifting or pressing force.
  23. c. 125 CEPantheon domeA 43 m unreinforced concrete dome, still the largest of its kind.
  24. c. 1000Spinning wheelA wheel-driven spindle spins thread many times faster than by hand.
  25. 1144Gothic architecturePointed arches and flying buttresses open walls to light.
  26. c. 1280Mechanical clockA verge escapement divides time into equal ticks.
  27. 1436Brunelleschi domeA 45 m dome raised without centering, using novel hoists.
  28. 1733Flying shuttleA shuttle knocked across the loom doubles a weaver's output.
  29. c. 1765Spinning jennyOne worker spins eight threads at once.
  30. 1769Water frameRollers and water power spin strong cotton thread continuously.
  31. 1771Factory systemWorkers, machines and power gathered under one roof on a schedule.
  32. 1774Cylinder boring machineA rigid boring bar cuts cylinders true enough for steam engines.
  33. 1779Iron BridgeThe first major bridge made of cast iron.
  34. 1785Power loomWeaving becomes a powered, machine-tended process.
  35. c. 1800Screw-cutting latheAn all-metal lathe with a lead screw cuts accurate, repeatable threads.
  36. 1803Portsmouth Block MillsForty-five machines make pulley blocks in the first mass production line.
  37. c. 1818Milling machineA rotating multi-tooth cutter shapes metal parts to a template.
  38. c. 1824Interchangeable partsParts made to gauges fit any assembly without hand filing.
  39. 1834Electric motorElectromagnets turn current into continuous rotation.
  40. c. 1840Steam hammerA steam-driven hammer forges huge iron pieces with control.
  41. 1841Standard screw threadOne nation-wide thread form lets any nut fit any bolt.
  42. 1846Sewing machineLockstitch by machine makes clothing and shoes an industry.
  43. 1848Micrometer caliperA fine screw turns into measurements of a hundredth of a millimeter.
  44. 1853Safety elevatorA safety brake that grips the rails if the rope snaps.
  45. 1885Steel-frame skyscraperA metal skeleton carries the walls, and buildings climb.
  46. 1911Scientific managementTime and motion studies turn work into measured, optimized steps.
  47. 1913Moving assembly lineThe work moves to the worker, and a car takes 93 minutes.
  48. c. 1950Toyota Production SystemJust-in-time flow and stopping the line to fix problems.
  49. 1952Numerical controlPunched tape drives a milling machine along a computed path.
  50. 1961Unimate industrial robotA programmable arm takes over hot die-cast work on a GM line.
  51. 1963Computer-aided designDrawing with a light pen on a screen the computer understands.
  52. 19843D printing (stereolithography)A UV laser hardens resin layer by layer into a solid part.
  53. 1989Fused filament fabricationMelted plastic traced out by a nozzle, one layer at a time.
  54. 2000ASIMOA humanoid that walks, climbs stairs and turns smoothly.
  55. 2005RepRapAn open-source 3D printer designed to print its own parts.
  56. 2008Collaborative robotA light robot arm safe enough to work beside people.
  57. 2010Burj KhalifaAn 828 m buttressed core, the tallest structure ever built.
  58. 2013Atlas humanoid (hydraulic)A 1.8 m hydraulic humanoid built for disaster response.
  59. 2022Tesla OptimusAn automaker bets on mass-producing a general-purpose humanoid.
  60. 2024Digit in commercial logisticsA humanoid leased like a worker, moving totes in a warehouse.
  61. 2024Electric AtlasBoston Dynamics retires hydraulics for an all-electric humanoid.
  62. 2024Figure humanoids at BMWA startup humanoid tested on a real car production line.
  63. 2024Low-cost humanoid (Unitree G1)A capable humanoid priced near a used car.
  64. August 2025World Humanoid Robot Games500 robots compete in 26 events in Beijing.
  65. October 2025Figure 03 humanoidA humanoid with fingertips that feel 3 grams, built for homes.
  66. October 20251X NEO home humanoidThe first home humanoid offered for sale to consumers.
  67. December 2025Salt-grain autonomous robotsLight-powered robots with onboard computers, a cent apiece.
  68. January 2026Production AtlasBoston Dynamics' humanoid goes from demo to factory product.
  69. April 2026Robot beats human half-marathon recordA humanoid runs 21 km faster than any person has.

Projections 3

  1. around 2030General-purpose factory robotsRobots that learn a new assembly task from demonstration rather than months of programming.
  2. around 2036Humanoid robots in homesA household robot folds laundry, loads the dishwasher and tidies up without supervision.
  3. around 2058Atomically precise manufacturingProgrammable machines build products by placing atoms and molecules exactly where designed.