Stone to Silicon

Computing · around 2035

Zettascale computing

Projection

A single system performs a thousand times more operations per second than the first exascale machines.

Frontier passed the exascale mark in 2022. Zettascale machines, likely at lower numeric precision for AI, would train and run models and simulations far beyond today's.

Why it’s plausible: AI clusters are growing faster than historical supercomputer trends; it depends on continued chip scaling, advanced packaging and gigawatt-class power supply.

See it in the living treeWikipedia

Arcs above join it to what it stood on, arcs below to what it led to. The bar places this stretch on the tree's whole timeline.

What it built on 7

What it led to 1

Related measurements

Fastest computer in the world Latest: 2.2×10¹⁸ operations per second (2026) Source: Wikipedia: List of fastest computers; Wikipedia: History of supercomputing

Fastest supercomputer Latest: 1.81B GFLOP/s (2025) Source: Our World in Data

Training compute of notable AI models Source: Epoch AI, Notable AI Models (CC BY 4.0)